Positive Impact of Woman Labor in Economic Growth Essay Example for Free

Positive Impact of Woman moil in Economic Growth EssayLabor angiotensin-converting enzyme of the factors of production and serves as the source of competitive advantage of various countries in attracting foreign investors. Alongside with prod is the concept of productivity which is the largest single component of economic branch especially for those labor intensive countries. Therefore, government of various countries around the globe a lot enough focus on maintaining the equilibrium curb of their labor commercialize in rescript to achieve impressive economic harvest-home.But with the advent of globalization, the demand for laborers extended up to such point wherein the labor market has to accommodate char on the pool of labor. But why is that so? Are there any benefits that can be derived from hiring a woman on a certain business firm? This paper aims to identify the effects of womans entrance to labor pool to economic growth as well as the factor/s that contributed in order for such event to occur in the labor market.Relationship of Woman Labor and Economic Growth Gender bias in labor force is a large factor to some of the countries especially in the Middle einsteinium wherein the labor pool is nonetheless world dominated by men and discrimination and injustices to women is very much accepted into their society. But there are still those liberal countries that welcome the entrance of women to labor force. Like for instance in UK, women serve as one of the source of high productivity and economic growth (Walby, 2002). For the past decades, UK is relatively stable in terms of market success due to the improvement of the skills of their labor force and women made a significant region for the attainment of such impressive productivity and high performance.The characteristics of women like being keen to details and always want to take their time in order to attain the highest possible quality improved the efficiency and effectiveness of UKs la bor force. Further to a greater extent than, though women are physically weak as compared to men, they are more productive when it comes to making planning and strategies on how to solve various problems concerning the welfare of the company or a business firms. This distinct characteristic of women serves as an roadway towards the improvement of the entire labor pool of UK for the past years. Moreover, it was identified that deficit in the labor force in the UK market provided a room for the market system to accept the entrance of women into the labor force despite of the fact that women have fewer educational qualifications than men but this draw back on women was already settled by the present young women.Women nowadays compete at par with men in terms of attaining higher positions in the incorporate world as they start to attain higher academic degrees. With this increase on productivity of labor force in UK industries started to generate more income and becomes more profitabl e. Moreover, domestic production is deemed to boost by the time skilled women entered the labor force of UK. In this regard, it is clear that the innovation of women to labor force did provide confirming impacts on the economic growth of the country.This insight do not suggest that men are already less efficient as compared to women, the point is, with the entry of women in the labor pool, the efficiency and effectiveness of men is further improved by the women. But with regards to physical productivity, still, men are still the one who dominates in the said area. Moreover, with the entrance of women in the labor force, flexibility of the labor pool improves since there were some tasks that only women can perform or requires the experiences of a woman. As a result, the productivity of the labor forces increase and so with the entire economy.At the end of the day, the entrance of women to labor force increases the volume of domestic production as more laborers can now be hired by d omestic and foreign firms as well as the improvement on the quality of the products being produced in the economy due to the innate characteristics of women like their keen attention to details provides lesser rooms for mistakes or errors. Moreover, those increases in the domestic production and higher quality of products will make the GDP of the country to increase which in return will improve the economic and social welfare of every laborers in the market.ReferencesWalby, S. (2002). The Impact of Womens Position in the Labor Market on Pay and Implications for UK Productivity. Retrieved March 28, 2008, from http//www.womenandequalityunit.gov.uk/publications/weu_pay_and_productivity.pdf

Why e-Business is important to the world economy Essay Example for Free

Why e-Business is important to the world economy EssayWhile the terms e-business and e-commerce are often used in the same context in that location is a difference between the two. E-commerce generally refers to financial transactions that take place on the Web, whereas e-business refers to all types of transactions over the Web. The use of the Web, or Internet, is mayhap one of the greatest changes in business practices like a shot. The transforming power of this mode of business extends far beyond the obvious points of convenience for the customer and cost savings for the business. The closely powerful implementations of e-business enable a complete restructuring of business models (Ware, 1999). The extensive acceptance and relatively low cost access is making a change in the worlds economy. This paper will attempt to identify some the reasons that e-business is important to the world economy.Many businesses are interested in e-business for the most simple of reasons, which is the augment of sugar and, generally, a decrease in costs. Often the decrease in costs is associated with paperwork, employee pay and overhead, and these savings can be passed on to the buyer. An example is Cisco Systems who today sells the majority of its computer networking equipment over the internet. According to SchneiderBecause no customer service representatives are involved in making these sales, Cisco operates very efficiently. In 1998, the origin year in which its online sales initiative was fully operational, Cisco made 72 percent of its sales on the Web. Cisco estimated that it avoided handling 500,000 calls per month and relieve $500 million in that year alone. (2004, pg. 15).In a business-to-business (B2B) transaction, if a buyer can purchase more of a product for a lesser amount, they can sell more as well. Selling more helps to energise the economy in any country. In addition, when a company does a effective job of advertising on the Web, it allows them to g et the message near their product or service out to potential customers around the world. This can lead to an increase in sales and also helps the buyer with purchasing prospects. E-business can also provide a larger involveion of products and services for a buyer to select from.The ability of the internet to transfer information has made the world asomewhat smaller place. The use of e-business allows for communications and transactions to happen extremely quickly. in advance the use of the internet, trading among countries could take weeks. Such circumstances lent themselves to fragmented individualized markets with subsidiaries run by family members or close friends (Wright. N/D). Now, businesses can move with their subsidiaries, business partners, vendors, and buyers in a time and cost efficient manner. Many companies, such as Hewlett-Packard and Dell have taken the opportunity to open offices and plants in other countries as this can greatly reduce production costs. The ope ning of production facilities has in turn created many jobs for many people in those countries, and this helps to stimulate economic growth.According to Gary Schneider the inherently global nature of electronic commerce leads to many opportunities and a few challenges (2004. pg. 41). While there are obvious concerns about trust, culture, and language legalities, more and more businesses are conducting e-business. E-business has opened the door for many countries to participate in business ventures that they did not have previously, therefore generating a change flow for that countries economy. This type of business has allowed for some countries to openly sell their best products to the highest bidder and to expand market share. When done on a global scale such as this, every country has the opportunity toshare the wealth, which helps the global economy.ReferencesSchneider, G. (2004). Electronic Commerce The Second Wave. (5th ed.) Thomson. Course Technology.Ware, B. (1999). Syracus e University research centers. Retrieved January 18, 2008 from http//www.syr.edu/research/ebusiness/benreport.htmlWright, N. S. (n/d). Global economy. Business Encyclopedia. Retrieved January 18, 2008 from http//www.answers.com/ field of study/world-economy?cat=biz-fin

Case Study: Energy Drink Industry

Case Study Energy Drink IndustryNo serious and lasting achievement or success one ever achieves without the friendly guidance and co-operation of so umteen people involved in work. Fore near of alone, I express my gratitude to the Almighty for his blessings and foresting wisdom in tout ensemble my wishes. I am also thankful to my Subject Teacher ABHAY TIWARI , who has helped me a lot each and e precise magazine when I had some difficulty. Words ar non sufficient to register my sincere regards to my loving p atomic number 18nts for their deep affection and unabated inspiration that re everyy kept me going. They were and unending source of strength and constancy during the course of the study. I place my thanks to al l those who spa exit their time and made it convenient for me to complete the research. I deeply ac fill outledge their concern for my research. live on and not the least, I also wish to red cord my gratitude for any person(s), my memory has failed to rec in al l, who rendered his/her/ their support and services.History of zilch confoundsPacked with caffeine, taurine and vitamins-B, nil drinks ar the current fuel of choice of the to geezerhood generation. More readiness mean for work and more harvest-feastivity. So, life gets pace rapidly and the strength drinks grocery expands .It all started in Japan when Taisho pharmaceuticals released a drink called Lipovitan-D in 1962. It contained a mix of b1, b2 and b6 vitamins, along with niacin and taurine all are concentrated and boost energy. merry drink is popularly grown up in Asia. In 1987, an Australian named Dietrich Mateschitz took the same concept but added sugar and caffeine to it and formulated red bull, which quickly popular in the Europe.Around the same time, Americans were accessorizing their all-night Atari marathons with Jolt Cola, which was advertised as having all the sugar and twice the caffeine of Coke. When Red Bull hit the trade in the U.S., they had to carve the n iche alone, so traditional securities industrying and branding strategies wouldnt work. They started sponsoring non-traditional athletes(no, not in-line skaters more manage kite sailors and sky surfers) and began an annual event called Flug tag, in which amateur aviators physical body their own stylized aircraft and compete to see who can fly the farthest over water. And , when Red Bull started marketing their drink to bar as a cocktail mixer.Red Bull remains the top name in energy drinks to this day, with global sales estimated at about $2 gazillion annually. Thats not to say there isnt competition. Dozens upon dozens of brands flood the energy drink market. Its hard to say how many, exactly, because upstart companies come and go, but heavy-hitters wish Coca-Cola, Pepsi, and Anheuser-Busch engage all developed their own energy drinks. Jolt Cola has been re-branded as an energy drink it now comes in a can shaped like a big battery. Hansen, a natural soda company, entered the game with Monster Energy. Rockstar, the first energy drink to make itself ready(prenominal) in 16- and 24-ounce cans, has been in trio place behind Red Bull and Monster for a while, but Coca-Cola recently inked a deal to distribute the drink. Yes, Rockstar has finally signed with a major label.All the marketing in the world, however, hasnt convinced the French, Danish, or Norwegian governments to legalize high caffeine energy drinks in their countries, and Argentina recently became the fourth demesne to outlaw such beverages. Other governments and food safety agencies have also raised concerns about whether the drinks pose health risks. To research such a government issue is to wade through a scientific point/counterpoint debate so thick that one would expect a 24-ounce can of busted-carb Monster alone to read through all the applicable articles. While many are apprehensive about potential dangers, the bottom line seems to be that energy drinks are probably no worse for you than salubrious burnt umber, and should therefore be treated accordingly. Taurine, one of the main ingredients in most energy drinks, hasnt been the subject of any long-term studies, so the jury is still out on that one. On one hand, taurine is produced naturally in the body, so it should be harmless, but on the other hand it is possible that too much taurine could be a bad thing, and the effect of combining it with caffeine and other ingredients has yet to be fully explored.But even if a major news story were to break tomorrow claiming that all energy drinks are made from the blood of orphans and that taurine causes copper loss and acute leprosy, the stuff is undoubtedly here to stay. With any luck, theyll keep our nations scientists awake long enough to finally give us our damn leafy vegetable packsPorters five forces for energy drink perseveranceThe energy drink industry is very competitive for all corporations involved, with the greatest competition being that from chal lenger sellers inside the industry. All energy drink companies have to think about the pressures that from rival seller within the industry, new entrants to the industry, substitutes of the products, buyers and sellers.New entrantNew entry is not a unvoiced competitive pressure for the energy drink industry becausethere are so,many brand who are entering into the market such as cloud 9,xxx,phantom and so many.Red bull and few other energy drinks are dominate the industry with their strong brand name and great distribution transmit.Energy drink is fully saturated and growth is low.It is very difficult for new and unknown entrant to start competing against the existing firms.Some another bar are also their such as high fixed cost of warehouse and other so many expenses and economies of scale.New entrant cannot compete in price without economies of scale.These high capital requirement and market saturation make it extremely difficult for the new company to enter the energy drink in dustry. switchSubstitute products are those products competitors which are not familiarise in the energy drink industry. Substitute of this industry are strong competitors. Such substitute of energy drinks industry products are fruit juices, water bottle, soft drinks, coffee and tea.Substitutes are strong for energy drinks industry becauseWater bottle, soft drinks, fruit juices, coffee are increasingly popular with trend to be a more health conscious consumers.There are progressively more varieties in fruit juices and coffee that appeal to different consumers tastes but appears healthier than energy drinks.Coffee and tea are competitive substitute because they also provide caffeine that provided by energy drinks also. The consumer who consumes lot of energy drinks whitethorn substitute coffee because if they want to keep caffeine and lose the sugar and according to the taste.Specially blend coffee meet very famed and popular because of so many coffee caf are opened and offers man y different taste to the consumers.Intake of coffee and fruit juices preferably of energy drinks very healthier and very cheap in cost also.Suppliers powerSuppliers bargaining power is higher because there is huge digit of firms exhibit in the energy drinks industry. Supplier for the energy drinks industry holds much competitive pressures. The bargaining power of suppliers is higher becauseThere is large number of energy drinks firms and most of them are using tin and aluminum mix cans for their furtherance, which is not much availability because thousands of other industry are using tin and aluminum for their packaging the products.Supplier of tin and aluminum are few so bargaining power suppliers is high.It is difficult to switch other suppliers. Because it will take more time to supply and deals.Buyers powerBar gaining power of energy drinks industry are mainly large grocers, discount stores and restaurants. The energy drinks companies distributed to beverages to these stores for resale to the consumers. The bargaining power is very strong because large grocers and discount stores buy large numbers of energy drinks, allowing them to buy at lower price. There is another reason also that many number of firms are in the energy drink industry so, different brand of energy drinks are getable in the market.RivalryThe competitive pressure from rivalry sellers is greatest competition that faced by the firms present in the energy drink because red bull acquiring most of the market in this industry and few other companies are also growth at the firmer rate because of that the rivalry competition will be more in this industry, red bull, cloud9, Gatorade, monsters, tab, Rockstar, these are major players in the industry. The rivalry will be higher becauseBrand name faithfulness is competitive pressure because brand key customers loyalty survey shows that brand with the greatest customers loyalty in industry. Red bull, rockstar, monster, these drinks have greater loyalty than other energy drinks and famous brand name.Distribution channels are very vast and because of this they are competing with each others.Another companies are also growing and acquiring market theatrical role and increasing the distributing channels with innovation in products so it the major competing thing in the industry.Major players in marketThere are many players in the energy drinks industry ecumenical red bull, monster, rockstar, amp and tab these are the rating series of energy drinks but in Indian market these are few major player who are playing vital role in Indian market by confidently except red bull because red bull is prodigious case because it is the oldest energy drink and very major player but other are try to competing with each others and increasing their market share.Major Players in Indian markets areRed bull red bull is acquiring most of the market share among all other energy drinks and the market share of red bull in market of energy drink is 42.6 (based on dollar sales).Cloud 9.Gatorade.Xxx.Red bull Red bull is the oldest product in the market and capturing the industry share almost half of the other products.Logo two charging bulls. point market long strenuous night shift audience. guideword red bull gives you wings.SWOT analysis of red bull companyStrength From this we can say that what the strength of the company isFashionable brand get wind and image for high standard.Oldest energy drink in the industry capturing the largest share of the industry.High revenue as price is set 10% than other energy drinks, which ontogeny the revenue of the company.So many market shares are sold to different countries.Famous for more caffeine and dangerous ingredient are added in it named edge.Brand equity and brand loyalty. failing what are the weaknesses of the company due to?Red bull may have lost its edge because of government real as being safe because many customers like strong ingredient and some are using light so its depend on person to person.Lack of patent.No campaign are organized, all the sales and revenue are getting by and the brand image.Very high price, low level of income cannot consume.Opportunities it can show us what are the opportunities of the company by which they can raise more in the market?They have the opportunity to set up more product variants or more tonus like others are doing to increase their consumers.Expanding their brand into different countries.Consumer recognize through sponsorship of sports and event.They should increase their consumption by more advertising.Threats Threats of the company areConsumer purchases other illegal energy drink instead of red bull containing more taurine and caffeine.Now a days safe would be accepted by many of people instead of red bull edge it may lost its consumers.Market share would be decrease due to some many other substitute and competitors are available in the market.New entrant is also coming in Indian market and other countries this may cause in the decrease in the market share.Todays new organic energy drinks market is coming into the market which may snatch the red bull market.Substitute like soft drinks and fruit juices.Gatorade First made in 1965, for the university of Florida football. It developed to replace the fluids and help prevent from dehydration.Target market athletesLogo lightningCurrent slogan Is it in you.SWOT analysis of Gatorade CompanyStrength It means what is the strength of the company by which company are getting benefit and got many benefits.Loyal customers, we saw many players are using Gatorade while playing sports and doing activities.Strong brand equity.Innovations, we can say that Gatorade became famous by their flavors they exhibitd so many flavors such as berry, lemon, orange and black cherry.Supply chain is very good of the company.Unique products are also available such as Gatorade thirst quenchers, fierce, frost, xtremo.Weakness what is the weakness of the company due to that reasons company are not growing at much higher rate.Non-diversified product line.Poor exposure and promotion because its only promote in abroad such as in usa and it is known by in India but not much very less promotion campaign are settled by the company.Distribution channel is not good enough if we equivalence to red bull and other drinks.Opportunities what are the opportunities by which company can increase their growth?Expand their brand by which people come to know because there are many region and areas where people dont know about the brand.They should increase their product because many flavors are not available in all the places and they should increase their services also.ThreatsCompetitors are the major threat because many companies are present in this industry are large number of players are present in the market.New entrant are interesting in the market and this wiil be the greater threat to the company because life becoming busy and everybody need drinks with full of energy which attracts other companies to attract toward the industry.SJ xxx A very new product in the industry of energy rinks and one of the most fast growing energy drinks in the market. It is the Indian product by JMJ GROUPS and introduced this year in the 4-5 state and the result in seen good for the product in the market. It was sponsored police squad Kolkata knight rides in Indian premier league in 2010 which really works for xxx. They kept price in comparison to red bull and introduce two variants in same drink.Logo xxx in column wise.Target market people with age between 15-40.Slogan extreme drink for extreme people.SWOT analysis of SJ XXX energy drinkStrength strength of the companyGood reputation of the marketing group.The entire douse is very successful for the brand.Xxx seen as young and trendy look and motivate the teen and Youngers to go through.Attraction design and name is very attractive.Brand endorsed by very famous celebrity SHAHRUKH KHAN.Weakness weakness of th e companyConcentrate only on few states such as Goa, Mumbai, Hyderabad and Delhi.Low investment on advertising promotion.Very high prices at the starting knowing this that there are many present in the market.Very less awareness among all the other products.Huge gap between existing firms takes much time to grow.OpportunitiesXXX-nicofix variant of company reduces the tobacco craze in youngster and it may helps in increase the favorability.XXX-rejuve variant of company are good option to improve immune system which creates awareness of using xxx.This new product in the market so it is the good opportunity for company to positioning and placing their product.New events and sports events are yet to come in the market and by sponsoring them regularly they can build their image in the market.ThreatsExisting firms who are well stabled in the market from last many of years like red bull, Gatorade and cloud9 and others also.If they are thinking to launch in abroad so much higher threat are to company because many of strongest competitors are present already in the market and strong competitors and have brand loyalty.Substitute is also present in the market so it also gives the competition.Cloud9 it is manufactured by Goldwin healthcare Pvt. Ltd. This company is specialists in the manufacturing of atomic number 6% natural lifestyle energy drinks and caffeine free cola. In the future, cloud 9 plans, itself to the peak of the industry where the sky not finished. Cloud 9 grows it Indian presence all the expanding into the overseas market.Logo Its name cloud9.Target market youth and athletes.Slogan heaven meets earth.SWOT analysis of the cloud9StrengthGood flavor taste, it is much better taste and comparative red bull bit same but not similar.Good consumer awareness.Sponsored in big events of India such as fashion events, sports.Good investment on advertisement.Well known parent company.Availability in small cans also like other energy drinks are not available in small pa cking but this drink is available.Low prices comparative to other energy drinks mostly than red bull , rockstar, Sj xxx.WeaknessLow area coverage by the promotional strategy.Competition within its own variable brands.Low level of distribution channels because not available in so many areas and cities.OpportunitiesOnly brand available in the market with the five flavor. No other brand is providing this kind of flavor only Gatorade does but not all available in Indian market.Associated it in different award functions and organized itself in different event and parties.It has brand ambassadors like shilpa shetty.Being the first energy drink brand in the Indian market. It would b put positive effect on the Indian consumers.ThreatsNew entrants in the market the rapid growth of the market attracting so many companies to launching their drinks so it is the biggest threat of the existing firms to new entrants.New favours from other brand which increase their growth rate by innovative the ne w flavor brand with different technology and ingredient like xxx-rejuve which improve the immune system.So many brand which being global and some are coming toward our country which is also a threat and if we thought to launch our products in the foreign market this is also the threat because of globalization.

The Structure Of Protein P53 Biology Essay

The Structure Of Protein P53 Biology EssayProtein p53, encoded by element Tp53, is cognize as a neoplasm suppressor. Discovered in 1979 as a transformation-related protein (DeLeo et al., 1979) and protein which accumulates in the tumor cellular phones tie uping with simian virus 40 (SV40) large T antigens (Lane et al., 1979), p53 was regarded as an important protein in the regulation of an apoptosis and back endcerization. During the last 30 years, a large amount of studies was taken in p53 and its related mechanisms in cellular process. In 1980s, researchers cloned the Tp53 gene and determined the component part of p53 as a tumor suppressor. However, the structure of p53 protein was uncertain until 2006, in which William and his colleagues determined the desoxyribonucleic acid binding core knowledge base of protein p53 (William. C. Ho. et al., 2006). Plenty of researches focus on the regulative mechanism of p53 and hundreds types of targets and regulators of p53 were found, e.g. MDM2, Cyclin H, ATR, ATM, etc. These molecules can interact with p53 and regulate the life process collectively.P53 plays a very crucial fibre in cell cycle regulation and apoptosis induction, the mutation of p53 would lead to the cancerization in cells and vex cancer. Bai and Zhu (2006) reported that the mutation or loss of p53 gene and protein can be found in over 50% of tumor cells in human all around the world. For these reasons, the application of cancer therapy with protein p53 and Tp53 gene is a very potential aspect in cancer treatment. This review will describe the structure and function of p53 protein, examine its role in natural and tumor cells and focus on the cancer therapy application through p53.The Structure of P53Human protein p53 is a 53KDa phosphoprotein encoded by a 20Kb-gene it has an intricate structure which is c stomachly related to its function. Wild-type P53 protein contains 5 major theaters. The N-terminus of p53 is a transcription-activation do main (TAD), with a major one at residues 1-42 and a minor one at residues 55-75 (Venot et al., 1998). The basic function of this domain is social occasion in the regulation of the pro-apoptotic transcription. Following the TAD is a proline-rich region which plays an important role in apoptotic activities. The central core of p53 protein is a DNA binding domain which can bind and interact with special DNA sequence that contain 2 copies of 10bp motif 5-PuPuPuC(A/T)-(T/A)GPyPyPy-3 (Kern et al., 1991). This region is also responsible for binding with LMO3, which is an essential co-repressor of p53 (Larsen et al., 2010). A nuclear localization signaling domain (NLS) is located beside the C-terminus of central core. The C-terminus domain of p53 protein, called negative regulatory domain is involved in the down regulation of DNA binding in central core (Chen, et al., 2005), and is also an essential part for the induction of cell death. A homo-oligomerisation domain (OD) located between th e negative regulatory domain and NLS. This part is involved in tetramerization, which is a main activity for p53 in vivo. The different domains of p53 protein have their functions respectively, nevertheless, they constitute an inseparable entirety to play the role as a tumor suppressor.The function of p53As a cancer suppressor, the main function of p53 is the anticancer function. P53 plays a lively role in apoptosis, gene perceptual constancy and DNA damage through a series of complex mechanisms. First, p53 can respond to DNA damage through activating the DNA get protein. For example, upon DNA damage, p53 gets activated and seats the transcription of repair protein XPC and DDB2. The complex of p53-XPC-DDB2 can repair the DNA damaged by UV (Adimoolam and Ford, 2003). In addition, p53 can arrest the cell cycle at S, G1, and G2 phase (Agarwal et al., 1995), which can provide sufficient time for proteins repair to fix the damaged DNA.Induction of apoptosis, the programmed cell death , is also the essential and approximately important anti-cancer function of p53. If DNA damage is irreparable, p53 can activate the announceion of pro-apoptosis genes like p21, Gadd45 (growth arrest and DNA-damageinducible protein 45), Bcl-2 family, etc. Moreover, p53 can bind and interact with hundreds of protein to regulate the cellular process and apoptosis. P53 can also restrain the cell cycle by repressing the expression of genes include bcl-2, bcl-X, cyclin B1, MAP4 and survivin (Bai and Zhu, 2006). The physiological functions of p53 are to maintain the genetic stability and regulate the normal cell cycle through a complex regulatory network. The mutation of Tp53 gene would lead to the loss of function of p53 protein, subjecting in a cellular canceration. Consequently, the essential function of p53 is preventing the cancerization of cells by repairing genes or inducing apoptosis, in order to achieve these function, p53 can interact with a number of downriver targets.The o rdinance in P53 LevelA large amount of cellular response and process is induced by p53 through a series of complex biochemical mechanisms. P53 achieves its function through activating, binding, interacting with myriad kinds of downstream target molecules including kinase, enzymes, etc. Generally, p53 interacts with its target by phosphorylation of transcription-activation domain in N-terminus.The most well-known target of p53 is a cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) p21. P53 would initiate the transcription and transduction of p21 in response to cellular stress, p21 is necessary in G1 control, the increase of p21 arrest the cell growth and induce cell death (Yin, et al., 1999). P53 and p21 contribute to a cell-cycle check point in G1 phase. The damaged genes would not be allowed to express until they are repair. If most damaged genes cannot be repaired, the accumulation of p21 regulated by p53 would induce apoptosis.Another important target of p53 is MDM2 (also called HDM2 in human body). MDM2 is a p53 inducible gene and its product can bind and interact with p53. The product of MDM2 gene, called p90 or p95, can bind with p53 and combine with ubiquitinate which can induce the degradation of p53 (Buschmann, et al., 2000). MDM2 is the killer of p53 which can keep the amount of p53 proteins into an appropriate level. However, a series of cellular stress would cause the overexpress of MDM2 and result in the over degradation of p53, the cell would lose ground and transform to tumor cell.P53 has plenty of other regulation pathways that cannot be listed in detail. The hundreds of pathways regulated by p53 have two mutual purposes repair genes and induction of apoptosis. Therefore, the core of the p53 regulation levels is to maintain the stability of genes and accelerate the death of damaged or diseased cells.The enjoyment of p53 in Normal and Tumor cellsIn natural human cells, the wt-p53 protein can be regarded as a guardian of the cell and genome. It can monitor the vita l process, repair the gene indirectly through interaction with repair protein and induce apoptosis when necessary (Hofseth, et al., 2004). P53 plays a crucial role in numerous cellular processes which are related to cell cycle and cell death. If Tp53 gene mutated, the tumor suppression function in the cell would partly reduce. As a result, populate whose Tp53 gene was mutated are more susceptible to suffer from cancer.Tp53 gene is mutated in over half of tumor cells the mutation would alter the structure of p53 protein, thus p53 would lose its function partly or completely. The p53-mutated cells can not die programmatically, and fuck off tumor cells. The mutated p53 protein tends to accumulate in tumor cells because the mutated p53 lose its function to induce the express of MDM2, which can degrade p53 proteins in the cell. The accumulation of p53 protein is a significant feature for the tumor cells. In cancer treatments, tumor cells can be detected through the accumulation of p53. However, mutated p53 can also be an obstacle of the therapy because version p53 can inhibit the function of wide-type p53 (Blagosklonny, M. V., 2002). If the treatment strategy is transferring the wide-type p53 into tumor cells, how to eliminate the effect of mutant p53 is the problem which has to be solved first. Consequently, p53 plays crucial roles both in normal cells and tumor cells it is a gatekeeper in normal cells and a marker for tumor cells it is an effective target for cancer treatments, nevertheless it can also become a barrier in cancer therapy.ConclusionP53 is the best-known transcription broker and cancer suppressor plays multiple roles in the cell. In healthy cells and, it is a gatekeeper to monitor the cell cycle and prevent the mutation of gene. If some mutations march on in the genome, p53 serve as a doctor to activate the repair process of damaged genes. When cells suffer from an irreversible damage or oncogenic stress, p53 can become a killer of cancerous ce lls. P53 participates in a number of biochemical pathways which can respond to the stress, arrest cell-cycle, repair gene and induce apoptosis. In the 30 years after the discovery of p53, plenty investigation was devoted into this essential protein and received a number of great achievements. A large amount of downstream targets has been identified and the regulatory network of p53 levels became clearer. Although plenty of details about p53, such as the relationship between each pathway, are close up unknown. There is still a potential application through p53 in cancer treatments.

Effects of Domestic Violence on Children

Effects of house servant Violence on ChildrenThe pieces of house servant forcefulness on nipperren and how they could be protected2. Chapter 11.1 IntroductionThis thesis highlights the instances of internal force out at home and its cause on peasantren. The good-disposed, psychological, physical and ruttish refer of house servant force could be story from a broad perspective although internal military group has a signifi send amodal valuet effect on children and vocalizationicularly in their psychological development and the way they react to their affable world at a later head of purport. The thesis discusses how children could be protected from municipal vehemence and what argon the measures that the g everywherenment or social organizations could take to control or stop domestic frenzy. The description of domestic violence in tot eithery dimensions is followed by an analysis of the unlike types of domestic violence and who atomic number 18 the communi ty stirred by domestic violence or how domestic violence could devour an impact on the children. The long term and petty term influences of domestic violence are studied after a careful analysis of query papers.3. Chapter 22.1 BackgroundDomestic violence is threatening demeanor or nigh sort of violence or deprave betwixt adults who are or were in relationships as also violence between family members and could affect anyone irrespective of gender, age, ethnicity or sexuality. Domestic violence could be psychological or physical, sexual or ablaze or even financial. It could range from forced marriage and genital mutilation to physical abuse and assault. Domestic violence usually takes place within insinuate family type relationships and could form a pattern of coercive and controlling doings in which one family member of partner tries to control the other family members or partner. Domestic violence after part mean a range of behaviors and near may not be typically uncu ltivated and could fall under domestic abuse. inquiry has indicated that one in four women face domestic violence in their life clock time and usually happens when the abuser has a desire for power and control over their partner. Domestic violence can be life threatening and could be calumnious to the lives of men and women if their partners are engaged in repetitive violence.Domestic violence is mainly carried out by men and experienced by women although it could be the other way round and at that place could be repeated physical or sexual assaults and this could result in injury or death. It has been projected that men could be groundless towards their partners or might face violence although women get violent as an attempt towards self defence as they try to move out of controlling behavior. Domestic violence has a direct adverse effect on the children in a family and more than 75% children are considered at risk when they become abusive parents in their family. Children are also sometimes abuse by the family member.Domestic violence exists within all kinds of relationships and in some occurrences older children could get violent or abusive towards their parents and so the equation between the parent and child could be abusive some(prenominal) shipway and in either case there are possibilities of domestic violence. Some common factors bugger off been set in defining the experiences of abusive relationships and identifying these factors could servicing in preventing the abuse.Domestic violence could take many forms of destructive criticism and communicatory abuse as in threatening, mocking, abusing and name calling. Abusers also use pressure tactics and could give threats or could break trust by being in other relationships or withhold information, show disrespect or could subject their victim to isolation and harassment. Physical and sexual violence are the usual forms of domestic violence although verbal attacks are most common.Domestic violen ce could affect anyone regardless of age, gender or social background or ethnicity and it could happen at any stage of a relationship and incidents of domestic violence could become increasingly severe over time. Domestic abuse is a result of the desire for power or control and could directly cause or be caused by individual experiences. The responses of society are contributory factors in domestic violence although men can easily get away with it. Domestic violence would shake direct impact on children and there could be both long term and short term impact on children. Developmental perspectives could consider direct or indirect abuse effects on infants and adolescents, school age children and teenagers. The next part of the review highlights domestic violence and its impact on children as noted in literature review and research studies.The uphold of Domestic Violence on Children2.2 Developmental Perspective2.3 Short and Long term impact2.4 Impact of intimate partner abuse on Ch ildrenThe developmental perspectives of domestic violence could be studied by measuring the impact of violence on children, infants, toddlers, adolescents and teenagers and would also suggest how the impact differs in each case. The short and long term impact of domestic violence could also be analyzed and in case of children the long term effects are usually mental illness or psychological problems, chronic health problems and in some cases poverty and homelessness.Developmental PerspectivesKennedy et al (2010) studied the clinical and adaptive features of juvenile offenders who were violent towards their parents and compared this with children who had no report of violence against their parents and the groups were compared on mental health issues, relation ship findings and intellectual abilities. Children who face domestic abuse are more likely to show crowd behaviors and could turn over trouble relating to parents and other members. There were no significant differences note d in change stateed up symptoms and in personal tolerances.In the context of domestic violence, Lapierre (2010) studied mothering and womens experience of mothering and how this was colligate to domestic violence. There seems to be a lack of research on womens experiences in mothering in the context of domestic violence and this study highlights the difficulties that abused women face during mothering. The author argued that motherhood itself could pose a challenge as difficulties of interaction arise within broader situations. Women have at the same time change magnitude responsibilities to motherhood and loss of control over their children and therefore this would be a major challenge. Mothers are required to be vocal or so their concerns as intimate partner violence faced by mothers would affect not vindicatory them but also the well being of their children ho may be open to the violence and its after effects (Rhodes et al, 2010). In a study with 39 adult women, mothers ra ised concerns on the negative effects of partner violence on their children.In discussions on the barriers to prevent violence and abuse by partners, the victims expressed their conflicts and how children could facilitate and inhibit leaving of an abusive relationship as the mothers could concern that children will be adversely affected if they remain in a violent family but could also be affected if they stay away from a family environment. This suggests that victims with children were always very conflicted as children could both facilitate and inhibit leaving relationships that are abusive. Mothers are and so in conflict as to whether they should spare their children from harmful effects of violence and leave or whether they should spare their children from any instability caused by separation or divorce. The mothers also suggested that fear of involvement of child tribute overhauls prevented them from seeking help with social assistant agencies. Social military service age ncies will have to understand the conflicts faced by mothers and should be able to help them.There could be individual differences and personality patterns that would suggest why some children show unstable behavior when exposed to domestic violence and why some other children are more alive(p) (Howell, et al 2010). Resilience was characterised by emotional regulation and prosocial skills, and was studied by a research group who observe mothers and their 4 to 6 year old children. The study suggested that better parenting, fewer maternal mental health problems and less severe photo to violence could name better emotional regulation and prosocial skills and this was negatively correlated with maladaptive child behaviors. Gardner noted the experience of children who live in families affected by domestic violence and collected information on children who continued to remain in parental home after child maltreatment (Gardner et al, 2009). There is a high policy oriented interest in d omestic violence and is an main(prenominal) aspect of child mal treatment concerns. There are however several challenges inherent in the interaction of domestic violence and this could affect outcomes of how children are treated by family members and social service agencies.Short Term and Long Term consequences of domestic violenceDomestic violence now has greater recognition in public policies in the United Kingdom. Devaney (2009) suggests that more than 1 million children may have been exposed to domestic violence that are perpetrated by adults family members. This sort of violence could have short term and long term consequences and could affect the social and emotional ad ripement of the children. As male perpetrators of domestic violence are not held to account, the children will have to be given special care and trade defense by social services. It is however suggested that it is the women s responsibility to protect their child from any harm and this is done when they eith er leave or force their partner to leave. Devaney suggests that the women of the household are held responsible for having to protect their children and typically they are expected to leave or force their partners to leave and women are also responsible for making men actualize their responsibilities as father and also by making them accountable for their behavior.External environment, the causes and immediate correlates of psychological problems in children are considered although Carrell and Hoekstra (2010) suggested that measuring data could have its methodological limitations. However the authors tried to correlate childrens school records with cases of domestic violence to estimate the negative effects of domestic abuse. The results from the study indicated that children from troubled families could have diminish grades and along with falling grades there is a possibility of misbehavior in the classroom. Achievement scores are however affected by family differences so domesti c violence could not be the only factor for determining grades but the family environment is also important.In many cases when women face domestic violence at home they are asked to stay with their saves for the children. Although Emery (2009) suggests that the concept of marriage could benefit men, women and children. The relationship between marital stability, husband violence, and childrens behavior problems was studied and the married women who reported husband violence also indicated child behavioural problems although this negative behavior reduced when violence was controlled.Witnessing, participating or being subject to domestic violence would all have negative consequence and especially adverse consequences for children. There are socio demographic correlates of children who witness domestic violence and this could have an association with mental disorders both as children and as adults (Meltzer et al, 2009). The traumatic effects of experiencing domestic violence were fou nd to be related to biographic, socio-demographic and socio-economic characteristics and the report stated that at least 4% of children are regularly subject to domestic abuse. The factors hat could cause greater likelihood of domestic violence would be mixed ethnicity, physical disorder, several children in family, split up parents, living in rented accommodation, poor neighbourhoods, the mothers emotional state and family dysfunction. A greater likelihood of the child witnessing domestic violence has been associated with conduct disorder although this was not associated with emotional disorders and there has been an association of domestic violence and emotional disorders so that with witnessing of domestic violence social workers and policy makers could identify the needs of the children who witness domestic violence.Impact of Domestic Violence on ChildrenYoung people caught in negative family experiences could be adversely affected by gap in knowledge of issues related to domes tic abuse (Templeton et al 2009). Young people sometimes create the circumstances they live in and in the study by Templeton 8 boyish people were interviewed from five families (Templeton et al 2009). It has been suggested that research in which the opinion of young people are taken directly would be needed and in this case data from five families helped understand the lives of young people who lived with parental alcohol misuse and violence. Links have been found between parental drinking and domestic abuse with verbal aggression and physical violence. The young people noted a range of strategies in which they tried to cope with their home environments and one of the ways they received support was from friends, family and other professionals. The practice and policy responses for children living in family environments will have to be changed significantly.It has been suggested that intimate partner violence is not just a distinct and unitary phenomenon and could be differentiated fit in to partner dynamics, context and consequences and the four patterns of violence described are coercive controlling violence, violent resistance, situational couple violence and separated instigated violence (Kelly et al, 2008). Gender symmetry and asymmetry in intimate partner violence could be studied although there would be methodological limitations. Differentiation in the different types of domestic violence would be possible with procedures as explained in family, criminal courts with characteristics of different types of partner violence. Parenting plans tend to stop outcomes for children and parent child relationships. Spilsbury et al (2008) discussed adjustment problems in community program samples with the school children being exposed to domestic violence. Children with internalizing and externalizing problems are the majority in domestic violence cases although children could also have externalizing problem without internalizing problem. However there are a small group of children with internalizing problems only. The demographic and violence characteristics showed that profiles of domestic violence and children affected by it could differ by child gender, mothers education, childrens lifetime exposure to violence and contacts with community programs (Spilsbury et al, 2008).When children are exposed to domestic violence the focus becomes child go according to jurisdictions and DAmbrosio (2008) suggests that not all domestic violence is the same and not all families are affected with domestic violence issues. The several factors of domestic violence could be the frequency and intensity of violence, the frequency and intensity of childs exposure to violence, the family members unique experiences and characteristics. The parents who participate in counselling services help in the promotion of health and safety of their children and also support removal of children from any exposure to domestic violence. Child security department agencies exa mines domestic violence and also helps in mitigating the effects of childs exposure to domestic violence and in some cases could provide an opinion for or against removal of children from homes exposed to domestic violence.In advanced welfare states, the abuse of mothers by their adolescent male children has been found to be prevalent (Hunter et al, 2010). However as Hunter el al claim, mother to child abuse remains a very under researched form of family and domestic violence and not much is studied about child to parent violence and usually it is the other way round. There are issues of stigma or shame when children are violent with their parents and studies on this usually focus on the interventions that could deal with anti social behavior and adolescent violence towards mothers is a prevalent issue. This brings in the different disciplines of youth justice, child welfare and domestic violence into focus and the behavior of children and young people towards their mother could hig hlight issues of responsibility. However there is also a failure of service providers to respond to such destructive forms of intimate interpersonal violence.In some other study that showed resilience among children who were exposed to domestic violence, mother-child dyads were examined when the children were 2-4 years of age. The study suggested that the young children who were exposed to domestic violence were more likely than the other group who were not exposed to domestic violence to show symptoms of internalizing and externalizing problems (Martinez-Torteya, 2009). However among the children who were exposed to domestic violence, 54% showed positive adaptation and non depressed mothers and thus greater resilience when compared with their non resilient counterparts. Domestic violence on a prolonged basis was associated with maternal depression, difficult child temperament and internalizing or externalizing symptoms. Heterogeneous outcomes among children exposed to domestic vio lence would involve influence on childrens adaptation.The perspectives of individuals and their relationships with each other and their lives and identity have been examined by Castelino (2009) and the focus was on family violence intervention programs. The study was on mens behavior change as they worked closely with their partners or children for their own safety. Within this organizational context, the childrens experiences at home with domestic violence have not been explored and although there is a framework for engaging in therapeutic work, the context of family violence tends to highlight work exploring safety and well being along with the complexity of family environment. The childrens experiences in domestic violence situations have been considered as significantly important. Berrick (2009) has argued that child welfare in the US is in a state of crisis and intense family problems such as do drugs addiction, domestic violence and criminal behavior bring greater problems to child behavior. When children are however removed from their homes they could be in a state of impermanence or transience without being in a stable family. Childrens well being and health should not be compromised in extended family relationships and the governments role is important in defining the vulnerability of childrens lives. Children are prevented from ill-treating their parents and this is done by placing them with carers also as Berrick argues these carers may not meet the qualifications for providing adequate care. However the unproblematic missionary post of children would be an emphasis on protecting children who have been harmed by parents.The impact of exposure to domestic violence could be studied in terms of effects on health and well being of children and young people and Holt (2008) studied the impact of domestic violence across separate and interrelated domains as in domestic violence exposure and child abuse, impact on parental capacity, impact on child and ad olescent development and exposure to additional adversities (Holt, 2008). The practices that would outmatch suit childrens needs have also been highlighted. Holts study used databases through an 11 year framework and the results suggested that children and adolescents living with domestic violence could face increased risks of emotional and behavioural problems and could experience physical and sexual abuse with the presence of adverse conditions at home.The protective factors that could possibly reduce the impact of domestic violence on children would a strong and supportive relationship with one parent and in most cases it is the mother who provides support to children who may be facing emotional problems although in some cases the children are best removed from the home and given separate shelters by the social service providers.Children and young people are affected emotionally and behaviourally when they face domestic violence and the effects could be long term and would conti nue to ensure safety of the children. Children also construct their own social world and timely and individualized personalized responses have been considered as more appropriate. Timely and appropriate individually tailored responses to build resilience in the childs life could mean significant implications for responses.The relationship between domestic violence and different forms of child abuse show that exposure to domestic abuse could have different levels of impact on children and some children are more vulnerable than others and there could be potentially very harmful emotional, behavioural and physical effects in such children. The protective factors that could influence impact of exposure and outcomes for the child would suggest the need for a holistic child centred approach to service delivery and for this there is a need to focus on the assessment as well as the need to understand the individual childs experience and how it would be necessary to be responsive to the chil ds individual needs.Chang et al (2008) studied the association of partner psychological abuse and child maltreatment after using a sample of mothers with children aged 0-17 years and the mothers were asked about the occurrence of neglectful or abusive behaviors towards their children or abusive behavior by their husbands and partners. Outcome measures for abuse could range from no abuse to mother as perpetrator, father as perpetrator, to both parents as perpetrators. The results indicated that children were at greater risk of maltreatment when parents psychologically abused each other although some factors which affected children were mothers level of education, child age and gender. When the father of the family abuses the mother, the impact on children is greater than when there is no psychological abuse. Partner psychological abuse is thus strongly related to maltreatment of the children and an increased risk of maltreatment was found with partner psychological abuse. Prevention of abuse is only possible with education about the serious impact of partner violence. Domestic violence and child welfare agencies should be aware of the link between partner psychological abuse and child maltreatment (Chang et al, 2008) and work towards identifying and alleviation of these problems.How professionals protect children from domestic violence.2.5 Different services or interventions that can protect childrenSeveral social work and social service agencies are responsible for taking care of children especially children who are abused and the different interventions that can protect children from domestic violence highlight not just the complexities of social work practice but also child behavior.In a study by Healey and Darlington (2009), it was suggested that participation of children and parents in child protection service could be complex and sensitive in social work practice as children and parents would have different issues in child protection cases and could voice wide-ranging concerns. In most cases participation would be separate and distinct. Child protection policies are closely associated with prevention of domestic abuse and promoting direct participation of children is a sensitive issue in social work practice. The child protection legislation policies promote ideals of service user participation although the principles and methods of achieving participatory practices in child protection will have to be elaborated and identified. However as Healey (2009) claim, the methods for participating in child protection services are not well developed. Child protection could refer to child and family welfare services and the prevention of child abuse, including through domestic abuse and possible neglect and the social service agencies seem to have a responsibility in protection of children in all contexts . The services included in child protection are family support, domestic violence, statutory child protection, child and family advocacy ser vices and a participatory practice in child protection. A qualitative analysis of interviews with child protection services show five domains of child protection work and core principles of participatory practice as given by Healey et al, (2009).The potential of social workers to lean from child protection to child welfare practice would show how social workers respond to child care problems (CCPs). Hayes and Spratt (2009) examined the potential of social workers from child protection to child welfare practice orientation and related child care problems. Social service trusts have usually responded to social policy goals to balance the protection of children and meeting welfare needs through reducing child protection investigations. Social workers tend to address perceived child protection risks and tend to balance social policing and supportive functions in practice as given in Every Child Matters (Chief Secretary to the Treasury, 2003)Ferguson (2009) highlighted the core experie nce of doing social work and the emotions and challenges of accessing children in social services. The methodology of child protection suggests that home visit is ignored and the emphasis is on policy and practice texts that happens in inter agency collaboration. The primary problem in contemporary child protection services for social workers would be the process of meaningfully engage with children. The practice through sociology and psychodynamic social work theory provides an understanding of social work experience. The concept of containment suggest ways in which practitioners could provide child protection for the benefit of children and other service users.2.6 Barriers to services- and how children can overcome that.Services and interventions that can protect children include social work child protection services, and some of the barriers to service in child protection would be lack or shortage of resources and lack of understanding how child protection works. Barriers to serv ice could also be about lack of cooperation and the children could overcome the barriers by actively cooperating with the social services and the parents and children should be able work together to cooperate in child protection issues. All risks will have to be identified and the children and parents and other relevant service users will have to ensure that social services agencies are able to provide the right kind of protection to the children. If the children have problems with custody or staying at a place with high levels of domestic violence, the social services may well take legal help to have them relocated to other shelters which would be safer for the children if the home environment is not safe enough.4- Chapter 33.1 Limitation or findings- Critiquing the researchers about good and bad on their findings according to their aims.5. Chapter 44.1 Discussion4.2 Conclusion

Liberty And Paternalism Essays -- essays research papers

LIBERTY AND PATERNALISMJohn Stuart hoagie and Gerald Dworkin have distinctly opposing views on legal paternalism in that Mill is adamantly against any form of paternalism, whereas Dworkin believes that there do exist circumstances in which paternalism is justified. Both agree that paternalism is justified when the well being of an new(prenominal) person is violated or put at luck. Mill takes on a utilitarian argument, explaining that allowing an individual to exercise his freedom of free choice is more good to society than deciding for him what is in his dress hat interests. Dworkin, on the other hand, feels that certain cases require the disturbance of either society as a whole or its individual members. He breaks Mills argument down into two distinct types, one based on utilitarianism and one based on the infinite value of free choice. After reading both articles, Paternalism by Dworkin and On Liberty by Mill, I believe that Dworkin is correct in explaining that some interve ntion is necessary under certain circumstances. I have come to this conclusion based on the fact that there do exist circumstances in which an individual is incapable of making a rational decision considering not only the well being of himself, but also the well being of other members of society. Also, the argument that the protection of the individual committing the action in question is not reason enough to interfere with the action is ludicrous in that one of our governments main reasons for existence is to protect the members of our society. This protection includes protection from ourselves at times when we are unable to rationally decide what is in our best interests. This essay will live of an examination of this controversy as well as an application of my proposed conclusion. Before addressing any opposing views to my conclusion, I will first explain my reasoning. As Dworkin explains in his essay, there are circumstances when a person is unable to make a rational and logi cal decision for himself. The inability to make such decisions has yen been a justified reason to interfere in the process, such as in cases with young children. When a young child is about to run crosswise a busy street in order to chase his ball, the childs parent, or any other bystander, is compensate richly justified in... ...f such a decision, the government has aright to step in and help the person. This is because at this generalizeing of the situation, the person is not capable of making a decision that he would presumable consent to at after fully understanding the situation. As in the seat belt case, often times, a person does not fully understand that not corrosion a seat belt contradicts his true desires and that no possible good or benefit can come from not wearing it. However, when a person is making a rational decision between two things that he values, he is the only person that can decide which is best for him. An important condition to remember in this conclu sion is that all of this is assuming that no other individuals are being harmed or put at risk by the actions of these people. Under this condition I have come to the conclusion that there do exist certain circumstances where the government has a right to legal paternalism. These circumstances include times when an individual is unable to make a rational and logical decision for himself either because he does not fully understand the issue or because he is unable to logically assign value to specific possible consequences of a decision.

The Effects of Smoking on the Developing Fetus Essay -- Health Medical

The effectuate of Smoking on the Developing FetusThe exposure of the fetus to nicotine during development has several effects. The most well known result of fastball is low birth weight of the infant. There are also some studies that reveal nicotine as a drug that can go the brain of the create fetus. Nicotine also has direct effects on the neurotransmitter systems in the CNS and may cause a decrease in cell growth which could result in mental impairment. The correlation between maternal smoking and low birth weight has been strongly established. Nicotine affects the placental function by inducing the release of norepinephrine and epinephrine into the maternal blood, which causes decreased blood flow to the placenta (1). The decreased blood flow causes a decrease in delivery of oxygen and nutrients to the fetus. This may induce an effect on cell growth and development. High levels of carboxyhemoglobin are present in the blood of the mother and the fetus. This may decrease the c apacity of the blood to charge oxygen and fetal hypoxia is the result (2). Fetal hypoxia and ischemia are major contributors to developmental defects, but nicotine has been implicated, in various studies, to have a direct affect on fetal development (3). Several studies suggest that nicotine interferes with cell acquisition and development in various brain regions. The developing nervous system seems to be more vulnerable to nicotine exposure than the rest of the body (4). This is important since nicotine readily crosses the placental barrier and fetal blood concentrations are equal to or preceding(prenominal) that of the mother (1). DNA can be used as a index for measuring cell acquisition. An experiment on rats by Lichtensteiger et. al. reported that DN... ...r. (1988) prenatal adverse effects of nicotine on the developing brain. Progress in Brain Research. 73137-157. 2. Moore, K. L. The Developing Human Clinically oriented embryology, 4th edition. Philadelphia PA W.B. Saunder s Co., 1988, p.146. 3.Navarro, H. A., F. J. Seidler, J. P. Eylers, F. E. Baker, S. S. Dobbins, S. E. Lappi, T. A. Slotkin. (1989) Effects of Prenatal Nicotine Exposure on Development of Central and Peripheral Cholinergic Neurotransmitter Systems. Evidence for Cholinergic Trophic Influences in Developing Brain. The Journal of Pharmacology and observational Therapeutics, 251(3)894-900. 4. Navarro, H. A., F. J. Seidler, R. D. Schwartz, F. E. Baker, S. S. Dobbins, T. A. Slotkin. (1989) Prenatal Exposure to Nicotine Impairs Nervous System Development at a Dose Which Does Not Affect Viability or Growth. Brain Research Bulletin. 23187-192.